1、【英语拓展阅读】 M5 Ethnic Culture Ethnic groupAn ethnic group is a group of human beings whose members identify with each other, usually on the basis of preferential endogamy (marrying within a social group) and/or a presumed or real common ancestry.12 Ethnic identity is further marked by the recognition f
2、rom others of a groups distinctiveness3 and the recognition of common cultural, linguistic, religious, behavioral or biological traits,14 real or presumed, as indicators of contrast to other groups.5Ethnicity is an important means through which people can identify themselves. According to Challenges
3、 of Measuring an Ethnic World: Science, politics, and reality, a conference organized by Statistics Canada and the United States Census Bureau (April 1-3, 1992), Ethnicity is a fundamental factor in human life: it is a phenomenon inherent in human experience.6 However, many social scientists, like a
4、nthropologists Fredrik Barth and Eric Wolf, regard ethnicity more as a product of interaction, rather than reflecting essential qualities inherent to human groups.7 Processes that result in the emergence of such identification are called ethnogenesis. Members of an ethnic group, on the whole, claim
5、cultural continuities over time, although historians and cultural anthropologists have documented that many of the values, practices, and norms that imply continuity with the past are of relatively recent invention.8According to Thomas Hylland Eriksen, until recently the study of ethnicity was domin
6、ated by two distinct debates. One is between primoridalism and Instrumentalism. In the primordialist view, the participant perceives ethnic ties collectively, as an externally given, even corcive, social bond.9 The instrumentalist approach, on the other hand, treats ethnicity primarily as an ad-hoc
7、element of a political strategy, used as a resource for interest groups for achieving secondary goals such as, for instance, an increase in wealth, power or status.1011 This debate is still an important point of reference in Political science, although most scholars approaches fall between the two p
8、oles.12The second debate is between constructivism and essentialism. Constructivists view national and ethnic identities as the product of historical forces, often recent, even when they present themselves as old.1314 Essentialists view such identities as ontological categories defining social actor
9、s, and not themselves the result of social action.1516 According to Eriksen, these debates have been superseded, especially in Anthropology, by scholars attempts to respond to increasingly politicized forms of self-representation by members of different ethnic groups and nations in the context of de
10、bates over multiculturalism in countries like the United States and Canada, and post-colonialism in the Caribbean and South Asia.17DefinitionSociologist Max Weber once remarked that the whole conception of ethnic groups is so complex and so vague that it might be good to abandon it altogether.18In a
11、ny case, Weber proposed a definition of ethnic group that became accepted by many sociologistscitation needed:Those human groups that entertain a subjective belief in their common descent because of similarities of physical type or of customs or both, or because of memories of colonization and migra
12、tion; this belief must be important for group formation; furthermore it does not matter whether an objective blood relationship exists.18Anthropologist Ronald Cohen, in a review of anthropological and sociological studies of ethnic groups since Weber, claimed that the identification of ethnic groups
13、 by social scientists often reflected inaccurate labels more than indigenous realities:. the named ethnic identities we accept, often unthinkingly, as basic givens in the literature are often arbitrarily, or even worse inaccurately, imposed.19 Cohen also suggests that claims concerning ethnic identi
14、ty (like earlier claims concerning tribal identity) are often colonialist practices and effects of the relations between colonized peoples and nation-states.19 Harold Isaacs has identified other diacritics (distinguishing markers) of ethnicity, among them physical appearance, name, language, history
15、, and religion;20 this definition has entered some dictionaries.21 Social scientists have thus focused on how, when, and why different markers of ethnic identity become salient. Thus, anthropologist Joan Vincent observed that ethnic boundaries often have a mercurial character.22 Ronald Cohen conclud
16、ed that ethnicity is a series of nesting dichotomizations of inclusiveness and exclusiveness.19 He agrees with Joan Vincents observation that (in Cohens paraphrase) Ethnicity . can be narrowed or broadened in boundary terms in relation to the specific needs of political mobilization.19 This may be w
17、hy descent is sometimes a marker of ethnicity, and sometimes not: which diacritic of ethnicity is salient depends on whether people are scaling ethnic boundaries up or down, and whether they are scaling them up or down depends generally on the political situation.Christian organizations use a defini
18、tion for the purpose of church advancement and planning. According to the Lausanne 1982 conference, people/ethnic group definition is considered as For evangelization purposes, a people group is the largest group within which the Gospel can spread as a church planting movement without encountering b
19、arriers of understanding or acceptance (of the message). 23Ethnicity and raceEthnicity and race are related concepts. While they are both usually defined in terms of shared genealogy, they are social constructs.24 Often, ethnicity also connotes shared cultural, linguistic, behavioural or religious t
20、raits. For example, to call oneself Jewish or Arab one immediately invokes a clutch of linguistic, religious, cultural and racial features that are held to be common within each ethnic category. Such broad ethnic categories have also been termed macroethnicity25 to distinguish them from smaller more
21、 subjective ethnic features, often termed microethnicity.2627 Race, by contrast, refers to some concentrations, as relative to frequency and distribution, of hereditary particles (genes) and physical characters, which appear, fluctuate, and often disappear in the course of time by reason of geograph
22、ic and or cultural isolation. In 1950, the UNESCO statement The Race Question, signed by some of the internationally renowned scholars of the time (including Ashley Montagu, Claude Lvi-Strauss, Gunnar Myrdal, Julian Huxley, etc.), suggested that: National, religious, geographic, linguistic and cultu
23、ral groups do not necessarily coincide with racial groups: and the cultural traits of such groups have no demonstrated genetic connection with racial traits. Because serious errors of this kind are habitually committed when the term race is used in popular parlance, it would be better when speaking
24、of human races to drop the term race altogether and speak of ethnic groups.28In 1982, American cultural anthropologists, summing up forty years of ethnographic research, argued that racial and ethnic categories are symbolic markers for different ways that people from different parts of the world hav
25、e been incorporated into a global economy. According to Wolf, races were incorporated during the period of European mercantile expansion, and ethnic groups during the period of capitalist expansion:The opposing interests that divide the working classes are further reinforced through appeals to racia
26、l and ethnic distinctions. Such appeals serve to allocate different categories of workers to rungs on the scale of labor markets, relegating stigmatized populations to the lower levels and insulating the higher echelons from competition from below. Capitalism did not create all the distinctions of e
27、thnicity and race that function to set off categories of workers from one another. It is, nevertheless, the process of labor mobilization under capitalism that imparts to these distinctions their effective values. In this regard, distinctions of race have implications rather different from ethnic va
28、riations. Racial distinctions, such as Indian or Negro, are the outcome of the subjugation of populations in the course of European mercantile expansion. The term Indian stands for the conquered populations of the New World, in disregard of any cultural or physical differences among Native Americans
29、. Negro similarly serves as a cover term for the culturally and physically variable African populations that furnished slaves, as well as for the slaves themselves. Indians are conquered people who could be forced to labor or pay tribute; Negroes are hewers of wood and drawers of water, obtained in
30、violence and put to work under coercion. These two terms thus single out for primary attention the historic fact that these populations were made to labor in servitude to support a new class of overlords. Simultaneously, the terms disregard cultural and physical differences within each large categor
31、y, denying any constituent group political, economic, or ideological identity of its own. Racial terms mirror the political process by which populations of whole continents were turned into providers of coerced surplus labor. Under capitalism these terms did not lose their association with civil-dis
32、ability. They continue to invoke supposed descent from such subjugated populations so as to deny their putative descendents access to upper segments of the labor market. Indians and Negroes are thus confined to the lower ranks of the industrial army or depressed into the industrial reserve. The func
33、tion of racial categories within capitalism is exclusionary. They stigmatize groups in order to exclude them from more highly paid jobs and from access to the information needed for their execution. They insulate the more advantaged workers against competition from below, making it difficult for emp
34、loyers to use stigmatized populations as cheaper substitutes or as strikebreakers. Finally, they weaken the ability of such groups to mobilize politically on their own behalf by forcing them back into casual employment and thereby intensifying competition among them for scarce and shifting resources
35、. While the categories of race serve primarily to exclude people from all but the lower echelons of the industrial army, ethnic categories express the ways that particular populations came to relate themselves to given segments of the labor market. Such categories emerge from two sources, one extern
36、al to the group in question, the other internal. As each cohort entered the industrial process, outsiders were able to categorize it in terms of putative provenance and supposed affinity to particular segments of the labor market. At the same time, members of the cohort itself came to value membersh
37、ip in the group thus defined, as a qualification for establishing economic and political claims. Such ethnicities rarely coincided with the initial self-identification of the industrial recruits, who thought of themselves as Hanovarians or Bavarians rather than as Germans, as members of their villag
38、e or their parish (okiloca) rather than as Poles, as Tonga or yao rather than Nyasalanders. The more comprehensive categories emerged only as particular cohorts of workers gained access to different segments of the labor market and began to treat their access as a resource to be defended both social
39、ly and politically. Such ethnicities are therefore not primordial social relationships. They are historical products of labor market segmentation under the capitalist mode. 29 Ethnic stratificationIn sociology and social theory, ethnicity can be viewed as a way of social stratification, meaning that
40、 ethnicity is the basis for a hierarchical arrangement of individuals. According to Donald Noel, a sociologist who developed a theory on the origin of ethnic stratification, ethnic stratification is a system of stratification wherein some relatively fixed group membership (e.g., race, religion, or n
41、ationality) is utilized as a major criterion for assigning social positions.30 Ethnic stratification is one of many different types of social stratification, including stratification based on socio-economic status, race, or gender.According to Donald Noel, ethnic stratification will emerge only when
42、 specific ethnic groups are brought into contact with one another, and only when those groups are characterized by a high degree of ethnocentrism, competition, and differential power. Ethnocentrism is the tendency to look at the world primarily from the perspective of ones own culture, and to downgr
43、ade all other groups outside ones own culture. Some sociologists, such as Lawrence Bobo and Vincent Hutchings, say the origin of ethnic stratification lies in individual dispositions of ethnic prejudice, which relates to the theory of ethnocentrism.31Continuing with Noels theory, some degree of diff
44、erential power must also be present for the emergence of ethnic stratification. In other words, an inequality of power among ethnic groups means they are of such unequal power that one is able to impose its will upon another.30 In addition to differential power, a degree of competition structured al
45、ong ethnic lines is a prerequisite to ethnic stratification as well. The different ethnic groups must be competing for some common goal, such as power or influence, or a material interest such as wealth or territory. Lawrence Bobo and Vincent Hutchings propose that competition is driven by self-inte
46、rest and hostility, and results in inevitable stratification and conflict.31Ethnicity and nationIn some cases, especially involving transnational migration, or colonial expansion, ethnicity is linked to nationality. Many anthropologists and historians, following the work of Ernest Gellner32 and Bene
47、dict Anderson33 see nations and nationalism as developing with the rise of the modern state system in the seventeenth century, culminating in the rise of nation-states in which the presumptive boundaries of the nation coincided (or ideally coincided) with state boundaries. Thus, in the West, the not
48、ion of ethnicity, like race and nation, developed in the context of European colonial expansion, when mercantilism and capitalism were promoting global movements of populations at the same time that state boundaries were being more clearly and rigidly defined. In the nineteenth century, modern state
49、s generally sought legitimacy through their claim to represent nations. Nation-states, however, invariably include populations that have been excluded from national life for one reason or another. Members of excluded groups, consequently, will either demand inclusion on the basis of equality, or see
50、k autonomy, sometimes even to the extent of complete political separation in their own nation-state.34 Under these conditionswhen people moved from one state to another,35 or one state conquered or colonized peoples beyond its national boundariesethnic groups were formed by people who identified wit
51、h one nation, but lived in another state.Ethno-national conflictSometimes ethnic groups are subject to prejudicial attitudes and actions by the state or its constituents. In the twentieth century, people began to argue that conflicts among ethnic groups or between members of an ethnic group and the
52、state can and should be resolved in one of two ways. Some, like Jrgen Habermas and Bruce Barry, have argued that the legitimacy of modern states must be based on a notion of political rights of autonomous individual subjects. According to this view the state should not acknowledge ethnic, national o
53、r racial identity but rather instead enforce political and legal equality of all individuals. Others, like Charles Taylor and Will Kymlicka argue that the notion of the autonomous individual is itself a cultural construct. According to this view, states must recognize ethnic identity and develop pro
54、cesses through which the particular needs of ethnic groups can be accommodated within the boundaries of the nation-state.The nineteenth century saw the development of the political ideology of ethnic nationalism, when the concept of race was tied to nationalism, first by German theorists including J
55、ohann Gottfried von Herder. Instances of societies focusing on ethnic ties arguably to the exclusion of history or historical context have resulted in the justification of nationalist goals. Two periods frequently cited as examples of this are the nineteenth century consolidation and expansion of th
56、e German Empire and the Third (Greater German) Reich, each promoted on the pan-ethnic idea that these governments were only acquiring lands that had always been ethnically German. The history of late-comers to the nation-state model, such as those arising in the Near East and south-eastern Europe ou
57、t of the dissolution of the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian Empires, as well as those arising out of the former USSR, is marked by inter-ethnic conflicts that usually occurs within multi-ethnic states, as opposed to between them, in other regions of the world; thus, those other conflicts are often misl
58、eadingly labelled and characterized as civil war.Ethnicity in specific countriesIn the United States of America, collectives of related ethnic groups are typically denoted as ethnic. Most prominently in the U.S., the various Latin American racial and ancestral groups are typically grouped as either
59、Hispanics or Latinos. The many previously designated Oriental ethnic groups are designated as Asian ethnic groups and similarly linked together as Asians. The terms Black and African-American, while different, usually describe people whose ancestors were indigenous to Africa, and exclude the African
60、 descendants of European colonists.The term White generally describes people whose ancestry can be traced to Europe (including other European-settled countries such as Argentina, Australia, and Canada, where people of European ethnic backgrounds form the bulk of the populations) who now live in the
61、United States. Middle Easterners are peoples from the Middle-East, i.e. Southwest Asia and North Africa. These countries include Iran, Tunisia, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Libya, Algeria, and Morocco. (The U.S. Census Bureau compiled a list of ethnic groups which may be seen at Ethnicity (United Stat
62、es Census).In the United Kingdom, different classifications, both formal and informal, are used. Perhaps the most accepted is the National Statistics classification, identical to that used in the 2001 Census in England and Wales (see Ethnicity (United Kingdom). In general popular use in the United K
63、ingdom and Europe, the terms oriental and Asian are widespread and without negative connotation, with the latter term usually reserved in the United Kingdom for people from the Indian subcontinent (see British Oriental and British Asian for more details).China officially recognizes 56 ethnic groups,
64、 the largest of which is the Han Chinese. Many of the ethnic minorities maintain their own culture and language, although many are also becoming more like the Han Chinese. Han Chinese predominates most areas of China with the exception of Tibet and Xinjiang where the Han are still in the minority. T
65、he Han Chinese are the only ethnic group bound by the One-child policy. (For more details, see List of ethnic groups in China and Ethnic minorities in China.)In France, no population census includes ethnic categories, and the government is prohibited from collecting, maintaining or using ethnic population statistics.36 The currentupdate French government, led by Nicolas Sarkozy and Franois Fillon, has begun a legislative process to repeal this prohibition.
