1、Period 6 Reading and WritingTeaching goals教学目标1. Target language目标语言a. 重点词汇和短语kit, slippery, ladder, stove, appliances, unplug, hair dryer, extinguishers, curtains, wires, outletsb. 重点句式Make sure the floor is not slippery.Follow instructions for all electrical appliances carefully.Unplug all applian
2、ces, especially irons, after use.When cooking, do not let oil touch flames or other sources of heat.2. Ability goals能力目标Enable the students to write a letter asking their principal to organize a first aid course at the school.3. Learning ability goals学能目标Help the Ss learn how to write the letter.Tea
3、ching important and difficult point教学重难点Let the Ss explain the importance of doing a first aid course in the letter.Teaching methods教学方法Discussion (Group work) and writing (individual).Teaching aids 教具准备A recorder, a projector and a computer. Teaching procedures and ways教学过程和方式Step Homework checking
4、Ask the students to show their compositions of first aid. If there are some mistakes, point them out.Step ReadingAsk the Ss to read the title of the text and the headings within it.T: Whats the topic of the text and how is the information organized?S: It is about safety in the home and the informati
5、on is organized according to particular rooms and also to one cause of accidents fires.Tell the Ss to look at the pictures.T: What do you think these three pictures are telling us?S: To turn saucepan handles towards the back of a stove; Not to use a hairdryer near water; To keep a fire extinguisher
6、in the kitchen.T: What do you think the purpose of the pictures is?S: They emphasize some points in the pamphlet.T: Whats the purpose of the pamphlet?S: To tell us how to keep a safe home; how to prevent accidents in the home.Step DiscussionT: What things at home can be dangerous? S: electrical equi
7、pment poisonselectric fires ladders knives hot water windowsT: How to prevent us from being injured at home? For example in the kitchen.S: In the kitchen:Make sure the floor is not slippery;Always use a ladder to reach high cupboards;Dont stand on chairs to reach; Keep a window open when we use gas
8、fires; Keep matches out of the reach of children;Dont leave matches anywhere;Always cut away from your body when you use a knife;Unplug all appliances, especially irons, after use;Make sure that electric wires are safe and that children cant touch them;Dont leave small things on the floor or table w
9、hich a baby can put in its mouth;.T: What should you do if you are badly burnt? Look at the two pictures.S: Cool the area of skin at once. Wash the area of skin under the cold tap for several minutes. Put a piece of dry clean cloth over the area of the burn.T: How do you deal with a simple cut?S: Wa
10、sh the area of the cut, dry it and cover it with a piece of dry clean cloth.Let the students write more adviceGas fires: If you are using one of these, check that a window is open.Water: Make sure that young children can not get close to pools, lakes and rivers by themselves.Ladders: Dont use on a w
11、et floor. Get someone to hold the ladder for you.Dont reach sideways while standing on a ladder. Get down first and move the ladder.Step Practice writingT: We have learnt a bit about some first aid treatments in this unit. Now we are going to write a letter to the principal and request that he / she
12、 organize a first aid course for us. This is a guided exercise where you have to complete parts of the letter. Next to the letter, you are told what should go in each paragraph. This shows us the structure of a letter that is making a request. Do you know what such a letter would include?S: The lett
13、er should: say we have done a unit on first aid say why the unit was useful explain the importance of doing a first aid course say what we would like the principal to doAsk the Ss to write the letter individually. Circulate and help the Ss with grammatical structures and written expression.Sample an
14、swers:Dear Mr Chen,Our class has been studying a unit on first aid. We have realized first aid is very helpful and very necessary, because it can be used whenever or wherever we are in emergency. Even though the unit has been very interesting and useful, the ways it provides us are just too limited
15、to certain situation. We can not protect us in any other dangerous situations. So we want to learn more about first aid. We would like to request that you could offer us a first aid course a week. We think that a first aid course at the school can also teach us more about different kinds of first ai
16、d. In future we can stay calm and prepare for an emergency. If we know how to respond, we can save lives. Yours sincerely, Shirley Dear Mr Wang,Our class has been studying a unit on first aid. It tells us some basic knowledge of first aid. Therefore, when something emergent happens, we will not be a
17、t a loss.Even though the unit has been very interesting and useful, it only contains some safety measures at home. The information is limited. We are eager to know more about first aid from other aspects.We would like to request that our school can provide us a first aid course. We think a first aid
18、 course at the school is quite important and necessary. In this way, we can learn how to protect ourselves and help others in the future. Yours sincerely, Ashley附 件1. Animal bitesDomestic pets cause most animal bites. Dogs are more likely to bite than cats. Cat bites, however, are more likely to cau
19、se infection. If an animal bites you or your child, follow these guidelines:For minor wounds. If the bite barely breaks the skin, treat it as a minor wound. Wash the wound thoroughly with soap and water. Apply an antibiotic cream to prevent infection and cover the bite with a clean bandage. For deep
20、 wounds. If the bite creates a deep puncture of the skin or the skin is badly torn and bleeding, apply pressure to stop the bleeding and see your doctor. For infection. If you notice signs of infection such as swelling, redness, increased pain or oozing, see your doctor immediately. For suspected ra
21、bies. If you suspect the bite was caused by an animal that might carry rabies any bite from a wild or domestic animal of unknown immunization status see your doctor immediately.2. SnakebitesMost snakes arent poisonous. A few exceptions include the rattlesnake, coral snake, water moccasin and copperh
22、ead. Most poisonous snakes have slit-like eyes. Their heads are triangular, with a depression or pit midway between the eyes and nostrils.Other characteristics unique to certain poisonous snakes:Rattlesnakes make a rattling sound by shaking the rings at the end of their tails. Water moccasins have a
23、 white, cottony lining in their mouths. Coral snakes have red, yellow and black rings along the length of their bodies. To reduce your risk of snakebites, avoid picking up or playing with any snake unless youre properly trained. Most snakes usually avoid people if possible and bite only when threate
24、ned or surprised.If youre bitten by a snake: Remain calm. Dont try to capture the snake. Immobilize the bitten arm or leg and try to stay as quiet as possible. Remove jewelry, as swelling tends to progress rapidly. Dont cut the wound or attempt to remove the venom. Dont use a tourniquet or apply ice
25、. Seek medical attention as soon as possible, especially if the bitten area changes color, begins to swell or is painful. 3. ChokingIn adults, choking is often the result of inadequately chewed food becoming lodged in the throat or windpipe. Solid foods such as meat are frequently the cause.These fa
26、ctors increase the risk of choking: Talking while simultaneously chewing a piece of meat. Drinking alcohol while eating. Wearing dentures. Because dentures exert less chewing pressure than natural teeth and they interfere with the way food feels in the mouth, they make it more difficult to thoroughl
27、y chew food. Young children tend to put into their mouths almost anything that fits, so choking can occur unassociated with a meal.Panic accompanies choking. The choking victims face often assumes an expression of fear or terror. At first the victim may turn purple, the eyes may bulge, and he or she
28、 may wheeze or gasp.If the person can cough freely, has normal skin color and can speak, he or she is not choking. If the cough is more like a gasp and the person is turning blue, he or she is probably choking. If in doubt, ask the choking person if he or she can talk. If the person can speak, then
29、the windpipe is not completely blocked and oxygen is reaching the lungs. If choking is occurring, begin to perform the Heimlich maneuver.To perform the Heimlich maneuver on someone else:Stand behind the choking person and wrap your arms around his or her waist. Bend the person slightly forward. Make
30、 a fist with one hand and place it slightly above the persons navel. Grasp your fist with the other hand and press hard into the abdomen with a quick, upward thrust. Repeat this procedure until the object is expelled from the airway. To perform the Heimlich maneuver on yourself:Position your own fis
31、t slightly above your navel. Grasp your fist with your other hand and bend over a hard surface a countertop or chair will do. Shove your fist inward and upward. Clearing the airway of a pregnant woman or obese person:Position your hands a little bit higher than with a normal Heimlich maneuver, at th
32、e base of the breastbone, just above the joining of the lowest ribs. Proceed as with the Heimlich maneuver, pressing hard into the chest, with a quick thrust. Repeat until the food or other blockage is dislodged or the person becomes unconscious. Clearing the airway of an unconscious person:Position
33、 the person on his or her back, look inside the mouth and sweep the area with your finger to see if you can remove the blockage. If not, kneel over the person and apply upward thrusts to the upper abdomen. Repeat the process as necessary. Look inside the mouth again and sweep the area with your fing
34、er to try to remove the blockage. Then kneel over the person and apply upward thrusts to the upper abdomen. Clearing the airway of a choking infant:Assume a seated position and hold the infant facedown on your forearm, which is resting on your thigh. Thump the infant gently but firmly five times on
35、the middle of the back using the heel of your hand. The combination of gravity and the back blows should release the blocking object. If this doesnt work, hold the infant face up on your forearm with the head lower than the trunk. Using two fingers placed at the center of the infants breastbone, giv
36、e five quick chest compressions. If breathing doesnt resume, repeat the back blows and chest thrusts. Call for emergency medical help. If one of these techniques opens the airway but the infant doesnt resume breathing, begin mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. The universal sign for choking is a hand clut
37、ched to the throat, with thumb and fingers extended. If a person displays this sign, dial 911 or call for emergency medical assistance. Dont leave the person unattended.4. Cuts and scrapesMinor cuts and scrapes usually dont require a trip to the emergency room. Yet proper care is essential to avoid
38、infection or other complications. These guidelines can help you care for simple wounds:Stop the bleeding. Minor cuts and scrapes usually stop bleeding on their own. If they dont, apply gentle pressure with a clean cloth or bandage. Hold the pressure continuously for 20 to 30 minutes. Dont keep check
39、ing to see if the bleeding has stopped because this may damage the fresh clot thats forming and cause bleeding to resume. If the blood spurts or continues to flow after continuous pressure, seek medical assistance. Clean the wound. Rinse out the wound with clear water. Soap can irritate the wound, s
40、o try to keep it out of the actual wound. If dirt or debris remains in the wound after washing, use tweezers cleaned with alcohol to remove the particles. If debris remains embedded in the wound after cleaning, see your doctor. Thorough wound cleaning reduces the risk of tetanus. To clean the area a
41、round the wound, use soap and a washcloth. Theres no need to use hydrogen peroxide, iodine or an iodine-containing cleanser. These substances irritate living cells. If you choose to use them, dont apply them directly on the wound. Apply an antibiotic. After you clean the wound, apply a thin layer of
42、 an antibiotic cream or ointment such as Neosporin or Polysporin to help keep the surface moist. The products dont make the wound heal faster, but they can discourage infection and allow your bodys healing process to close the wound more efficiently. Certain ingredients in some ointments can cause a
43、 mild rash in some people. If a rash appears, stop using the ointment. Cover the wound. Exposure to air speeds healing, but bandages can help keep the wound clean and keep harmful bacteria out. Change the dressing. Change the dressing at least daily or whenever it becomes wet or dirty. If youre alle
44、rgic to the adhesive used in most bandages, switch to adhesive-free dressings or sterile gauze held in place with paper tape, gauze roll or a loosely applied elastic bandage. These supplies generally are available at pharmacies. Get stitches for deep wounds. A wound that cuts deeply through the skin
45、 or is gaping or jagged-edged and has fat or muscle protruding may require stitches. A strip or two of surgical tape may hold a minor cut together, but if you cant easily close the mouth of the wound, see your doctor. Proper closure minimizes scarring and infection. Watch for signs of infection. See
46、 your doctor if the wound isnt healing or you notice any redness, drainage, warmth or swelling. Get a tetanus shot. Doctors recommend you get a tetanus shot every 10 years. If your wound is deep or dirty and your last shot was more than five years ago, your doctor may recommend a tetanus shot booste
47、r. Get the booster within 48 hours of the injury.5. Fever: First aidFahrenheit-Celsius conversion tableF10540.510440.010339.410238.910138.310037.79937.29836.69736.19635.5Fever is one of your bodys reactions to infection. Usually the normal body temperature doesnt exceed 99 F (37.2 C). The value of 9
48、8.6 F (37 C) listed as normal body temperature is only a general guide. Isolated temperature elevations usually arent dangerous in an adult until the temperature reaches 103 F (39.4 C). Taking aspirin or acetaminophen (Tylenol, others) usually reduces a fever in adults. Dont give aspirin to children
49、 younger than 17 years of age. The use of aspirin has been linked with Reyes syndrome a rare but serious illness that can affect the blood, liver and brain of children and teenagers after a viral infection. How to take a temperatureYou can choose from several types of thermometers. Today, most have
50、digital readouts. Some take the temperature quickly from the ear canal and can be especially useful for young children and older adults. Others can be used rectally, orally or under the arm. If you use a digital thermometer, be sure to read the instructions, so you know what the beeps mean and when
51、to read the thermometer. Under normal circumstances, temperatures tend to be highest around 4 p.m. and lowest around 4 a.m.Due to the potential for mercury exposure or ingestion, glass mercury thermometers are being phased out.Rectally (for infants)To take your childs temperature rectally: Place a d
52、ab of petroleum jelly or other lubricant on the bulb. Lay your child on his or her stomach. Carefully insert the bulb one-half inch to one inch into the rectum. Hold the bulb and child still for three minutes.To avoid injury, dont let go of the thermometer while its inside your baby. Remove and read
53、 the temperature as recommended by the manufacturer. A rectal temperature reading is generally 1 degree F higher than an oral reading. OrallyTo take your temperature orally: Place the bulb under your tongue. Close your mouth for the recommended amount of time, usually three minutes. If youre using a
54、 nondigital thermometer, rotate it slowly after removing it from your mouth until you can read the temperature. Under the arm (axillary)You can also use an oral thermometer for an armpit reading: Place the thermometer under your arm with your arms down. Hold your arms across your chest. Wait five mi
55、nutes or as recommended by your thermometers manufacturer then remove and read the temperature. An axillary reading is generally 1 degree F less than an oral reading Get medical help for a fever in these cases: A baby younger than 3 months has a rectal temperature of 100.5 F (38 C) or higher or an e
56、ar temperature of 99.5 F (37.5) or higher If a child older than 3 months maintains a temperature of 103 F (39.4 C) after a few hours of home treatment If an adult has a temperature of greater than 104 F (40.0 C) or a temperature of 101 F (38.3 C) that persists for longer than 3 days Call your doctor
57、 immediately if the fever is accompanied by severe headache, stiff neck, swelling of the throat or mental confusion, or if you see unusual rashes or bite marks.6. Heart attack: First aidA heart attack occurs when one or more arteries supplying your heart with blood and oxygen become blocked. This lo
58、ss of blood flow injures your heart muscle. A heart attack generally causes chest pain for longer than 15 minutes, but it can also be silent and have no symptoms at all.About half the people who suffer a heart attack have warning symptoms hours, days or weeks in advance. The earliest predictor of an
59、 attack may be recurrent chest pain thats triggered by exertion and relieved by rest.The American Heart Association lists these warning signs and symptoms of a heart attack. Be aware that you may not have all of them and that symptoms may come and go. Uncomfortable pressure, fullness or squeezing pa
60、in in the center of your chest, lasting more than a few minutes Pain spreading to your shoulders, neck or arms Lightheadedness, fainting, sweating, nausea or shortness of breath If you suspect a heart attack, even if it feels like indigestion, act immediately:1. Call 911 or emergency medical assista
61、nce. The operator contacts the emergency medical services (EMS) system. In areas without 911 service, call the emergency medical response system. Its usually better to call these emergency numbers first. Calling your doctor may add unnecessary time. When you call, describe symptoms such as severe sh
62、ortness of breath or chest pain. This ensures a priority dispatch of EMS responders (paramedics) trained in basic and advanced cardiac life support. Most EMS units carry a portable defibrillator, a device that restores normal heart rhythm by delivering electrical shocks. Defibrillators can be critic
63、al to early successful treatment and survival. Many police and fire rescue units also carry defibrillators and may respond before an ambulance does. 2. Begin cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). If the person youre calling about is unconscious, an emergency dispatcher may advise you to begin emergen
64、cy treatment. If youre not trained in emergency procedures, doctors recommend skipping mouth-to-mouth rescue breathing and proceeding directly to chest compression. The reason is that if youre distracted by trying to perform unfamiliar breathing techniques, valuable lifesaving minutes might be lost
65、for the person who needs help. The most important thing you can do is to proceed directly to chest compression to move blood to vital organs, particularly the brain and heart. If youre trained in emergency procedures, its important to do both mouth-to-mouth rescue breathing and chest compression. 3.
66、 Decide on the fastest method of transportation. A dispatcher automatically notifies the closest well-equipped EMS unit. Ideally, EMS responders should reach you within 4 to 5 minutes. If you live in a rural or large metropolitan area, however, you may get to the hospital faster by having someone dr
67、ive you. Dont drive yourself! 4. Go to the nearest emergency cardiac care facility. Identify in advance the nearest center staffed 24 hours a day with doctors trained to provide emergency cardiac care. 5. Chew aspirin. Aspirin inhibits blood clotting, which helps maintain blood flow through a narrow
68、ed artery. If you think youre having a heart attack, take one regular-strength aspirin and chew it to speed absorption. Avoid aspirin if you are allergic to it or if you have bleeding problems. Dont delay calling for emergency help just because youve taken aspirin. Aspirin alone wont treat your hear
69、t attack. 7. Severe bleedingTo stop severe bleeding:1. Have the injured person lie down. If possible, position the persons head slightly lower than the trunk or elevate the legs. This position reduces the risk of fainting by increasing blood flow to the brain. If also possible, elevate the site of b
70、leeding. 2. Remove any obvious dirt or debris from the wound. Dont remove any large or more deeply embedded objects. Dont probe the wound or attempt to clean it at this point. Your principal concern is to stop the bleeding. 3. Apply pressure directly on the wound. Use a sterile bandage, clean cloth
71、or even a piece of clothing. If nothing else is available, use your hand. 4. Maintain pressure until the bleeding stops. When it does, bind the wound tightly with a bandage (or even a piece of clean clothing) and adhesive tape. 5. Dont reposition displaced organs. If the wound is abdominal and organ
72、s have been displaced, dont try to reposition them. Cover the wound with a dressing. 6. Dont remove the gauze or bandage. If the bleeding continues and seeps through the gauze or other material you are holding on the wound, dont remove it. Instead, add more absorbent material on top of it. 7. Squeez
73、e a main artery if necessary. If the bleeding doesnt stop with direct pressure, apply pressure to the artery delivering blood to the area of the wound. Pressure points of the arm are on the inside of the arm just above the elbow and just below the armpit. Pressure points of the leg are just behind t
74、he knee and in the groin. Squeeze the main artery in these areas against the bone. Keep your fingers flat. With your other hand, continue to exert pressure on the wound itself. 8. Immobilize the injured body part once the bleeding has stopped. Leave the bandages in place and get the injured person t
75、o the emergency room as soon as possible.8. ToothacheTooth decay is the primary cause of toothaches for most children and adults. Bacteria that live in your mouth thrive on the sugars and starches in the food you eat. These bacteria form a sticky plaque that clings to the surface of your teeth.Acids
76、 produced by the bacteria in plaque can eat through the hard, white coating on the outside of your teeth (enamel), creating a cavity. The first sign of decay may be a sensation of pain when you eat something sweet, very cold or very hot. A toothache often indicates that your dentist will need to wor
77、k on your teeth.Until you can see your dentist, try these self-care tips: Use dental floss to remove any food particles wedged between your teeth. Try sucking on an ice cube placed in the area of irritation. Sometimes ice may not help, though, and may even make pain worse. Take an over-the-counter (
78、OTC) pain reliever to dull the ache. Apply an OTC antiseptic containing benzocaine directly to the irritated tooth and gum to temporarily relieve pain. Direct application of oil of cloves (eugenol) also may help. Dont place aspirin or other painkiller directly against your gums as it may burn your g
79、um tissue.Swelling, pain when you bite, a foul-tasting discharge and redness indicate infection. See your dentist as soon as possible.Call your dentist if: The pain persists for more than a day or two You have fever with the toothache You have trouble breathing or swallowing 9. NosebleedsNosebleeds
80、are common. Most often they are a nuisance and not a true medical problem. But they can be both. Why do they start, and how can they be stopped?Among children and young adults, nosebleeds usually begin on the septum, just inside the nose. The septum separates your nasal chambers.In middle aged and o
81、lder adults, nosebleeds can begin on the septum, but they may also begin deeper in the noses interior. This latter form of nosebleed is much less common. It may be caused by hardened arteries or high blood pressure. These nosebleeds begin spontaneously and are often difficult to stop. They require a
82、 specialists help.To take care of a nosebleed: Sit upright. By remaining upright, you reduce blood pressure in the veins of your nose. This discourages further bleeding. Pinch your nose. Use your thumb and index finger and breathe through your mouth. Continue the pinch for 5 or 10 minutes. This mane
83、uver sends pressure to the bleeding point on the nasal septum and often stops the flow of blood. To prevent re-bleeding after bleeding has stopped, dont pick or blow your nose and dont bend down until several hours after the bleeding episode. Keep your head higher than the level of your heart. If re
84、-bleeding occurs, sniff in forcefully to clear your nose of blood clots, spray both sides of your nose with a decongestant nasal spray containing oxymetazoline (Afrin, Dristan, others). Pinch your nose again in the technique described above and call your doctor.Seek medical care immediately if: The
85、bleeding lasts for more than 15 to 30 minutes You feel weak or faint, which can result from the blood loss The bleeding is rapid or if the amount of blood loss is great Bleeding begins by trickling down the back of your throatIf you experience frequent nosebleeds, make an appointment with your docto
86、r. You may need to have the blood vessel thats causing your problem cauterized. Cautery is a technique in which the blood vessel is burned with electric current, silver nitrate or a laser. Sometimes, your doctor may pack your nose with special gauze or an inflatable latex balloon to put pressure on
87、the blood vessel and stop the bleeding.10. Special ProblemsWhen part of the body has been torn off. Try to find the part Wrap it in a clean dressing and place in a plasctic bag. Put the bag on ice, but dont freeze. Take the part to the hospital. When an object is impaled in a wound. Do not remove it
88、. You could reveal an open artery which would then be awfully hard to deal with, a.k.a. nearly impossible. Bandage many dressings around the object to immobilize it and support it in its position in the wound. Splinters. A small splinter in the skin should be removed with tweezers. For a splinter in
89、 the eye, seek emergency help immediately, do not touch it. Nosebleeds. Have the victim sit with his or her head tilted a little bit foward while pinching his or her nostrils together. One could also place an ice pack on the bridge of the nose. Injury to the mouth. If the injury does not involve the
90、 head, neck, or spine, have the victim sit with the head slightly tilted forward. If the victim is unable to reach this position, place the victim on his or her side. This ensures that blood drains from the mouth. If the injury has broken the lip, place a cleanrolled dressing between the lip and gum
91、. Applying cold can also help. If a tooth is knocked out . Place a small roll of sterile gauze in the gap left by the tooth that was knocked out. Pick up the tooth not by the root, but by the crown, the part you see when you smile in the mirror. If you can, place the tooth back how it belongs in the
92、 socket. If you cant put the tooth back in, put the tooth in a container with cool, fresh milk. If this cannot be done, use water. Caring for a Minor Open Wound Stop the bleeding by applying pressure with a clean, absorbant cloth, or if cloth is unavailable, your fingers. If the blood soaks through,
93、 apply a second bandage on top. Do not take off the first bandage because it will disturb the clotting that has already taken place. If bleeding still doesnt stop, raise the wound above heart level. Once bleeding stops, clean the wound gently with soap and water, or just water. It is very important
94、to get all debris or dirt out. Apply an antibiotic ointment such as bacitration or a triple antibiotic ointment. Remember, some people are allergic to these ointments, so contact your doctor if you have any doubts. Wrap the wound firmly in a cloth or a bandage. Do not cut off circulation! Covering t
95、he wound with a clean dressing, press against it firmly with your hand. Elevate the wound above the level of the heart. The clean dressing should then be covered over with a roll bandage (like an Ace) to hold the dressings in place. If bleeding still does not stop, add additional dressings over the
96、roll bandage. Squeeze a pressure point, the artery against the bone. This is in the bottom upper arm, or where the leg bends at the hip. Once the bandages and pressure point are being maintained, have someone call EMS if they have not already. Types of Wounds Name DescriptionAvulsionIn an avulsion,
97、a portion of skin is torn. This can be partial, with a portion of skin remaining as a “flap.” In a total avulsion, a body part is completely torn off.bruise Bleeding that occurs under the skin causes discoloration, swelling. The area begins as red but may turn into a “black and blue mark.”cut A cut
98、is a split in the skin caused by a sharp object, such as a knife, or even a dull object. A cut can have either a jagged or smooth edge.puncture A puncture wound is caused when the skin is pierced by a sharp object. Included in this category are gunshot wounds, impaled objects, and an object that passes totally through a part of the body.ScrapeA scrape is very common, and occurs when skin is rubbed or scraped away.
